Chinese civilization, as described in mythology, begins with Pangu , the creator of the universe, and a succession of legendary sage-emperors and culture heroes (among them are Huang Di , Yao, and Shun) who taught the ancient Chinese to communicate and to find sustenance, clothing, and shelter.

THE XIA

The first prehistoric dynasty is said to be Xia , from about the twenty-first to the sixteenth century B.C. Until scientific excavations were made at early bronze-age sites at Anyang , Henan  Province, in 1928, it was difficult to separate myth from reality in regard to the Xia. But since then, and especially in the 1960s and 1970s, archaeologists have uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs that point to the existence of Xia civilization in the same locations cited in ancient Chinese historical texts. At minimum, the Xia period marked an evolutionary stage between the late neolithic cultures and the typical Chinese urban civilization of the Shang dynasty.

TELLTALE SIGNS: THE SHANG

In 1899 peasants working near present-day Anyang unearthed pieces of polished bone and turtle shells. These relics were inscribed with charac- ters and dated back to around 1500 BC, the time of the Shang dynasty. Housed in Anyang's museum, these are the earliest examples of the elaborate writing system still used in China today.Shang culture was spread throughout much of north China, stretch- ing from Shandong to Shaanxi and Hebei to Henan. It was headed by a sacred kingship, who was supported by officials, armies, and a peasantry that supplied labour for the building of city walls and other public works. There was also a skilled artisanry that produced the magnificent bronzeware for which this dynasty is known; visit the Henan Provincial Museum for fabulous examples.

ENTER CONFUCIUS: THE ZHOU

Around three millennia ago the last Shang sovereign was defeated by the forces of Zhou who hailed from present-day Shaanxi province. The Zhou went on to rule over an increasingly large territory, reaching up to Beijing in the north and down to (he lower Yangzi River (Chang Jiang) valley in the south. To overcome the difficulties of ruling such a vast area, the Zhou established a feudal system whereby landlords governed over principalities that were contained within walled cities.In 771 BC the Zhou capital moved from a site near Xi'an to one further east, leading present-day historians to divide this period into Western and Eastern Zhou. During the period of Eastern Zhou law codes were written down, iron was discovered and the fortunes of the landed aristoc- racy waned, while self-made men achieved places at court and merchants grew wealthy. The Zhou's control over the principalities began to fade as landlords began to fight among themselves. The Eastern Zhou was a time riddled with strife, prompting reflection and philosophising on the part of one Master Kong (Kong Fuzi), better known in the West as Confucius. Confucius (551-479 BC) grew up in the old state of Lu, at the present- day site of Qufu (pl98) in Shandong province. The descendant of a minor noble family, he set off at an early age in search of an able and righteous ruler who might lead the world back to virtuous paths. In this mission he was doomed to disappointment, and his death in 479 BC was to be followed by an ever keener struggle among the states for power. Confu- cius did achieve enormous success as a teacher and moral exemplar, and the structure of Chinese society today remains very much rooted in his teachings. For more on Confucian beliefs, see the boxed text or head to Qufu for a good dose of hands-on history.

PEKING MAN

In the 1920s and 1930s Chinese archaeologists unearthed skulls, stone tools and animal bones believed to be between 500,000 and 230,000 years old. Was this the birthplace of civilisation? Unfortunately, we're unlikely to ever know. Research was never carried out on Peking Man's bones because, on the eve of the Japanese invasion, the remains mysteriously disappeared - some fear to the bottom of the sea.