The Han dynasty brought further unification of the empire as vassal states that had continued to linger on the outskirts were swept up under its reign. The energetic Emperor Wu, who reigned from 140 BC to 87 BC, established supremacy over neighbouring societies to the north and west, recruited able men to serve the dynasty as officials, and promoted Confucian education. An examination system was introduced and would go on to become a hallmark of government in the late imperial era; visit the Imperial College in Beijing to learn more.

After more than a century the Han gave way to the Xin dynasty (AD9-23), led by the radical reformer Wang Mang. This 14-year blip divides the dynasty into Former (Western) and Later (Eastern) Han periods.

Venturing Down the Silk Road

The expansion of the Han brought the Chinese into contact with the 'barbarians' that encircled their world. As a matter of course, this contact brought both military conflict and commercial gains.

To the north, the Xiongnu (a name given to various nomadic tribes of central Asia) posed the greatest threat to China. Military expeditions were sent against these tribes, initially with much success. This in turn provided the Chinese with access to central Asia, opening up the routes that carried Chinese silk as far afield as Rome.

Diplomatic links were also formed with central Asian tribes, and the great Chinese explorer Zhang Qian provided the authorities with information on the possibilities of trade and alliances in northern India. During the same period, Chinese influence percolated into areas that were later to become known as Vietnam and Korea.

UNITY & DIVISION

They say the momentum of history was ever thus: the empire, long divided, must unite; long united, must divide.---LuoGuanzhong

With these words, the storyteller of Romance of the Three Kingdoms (14th century) sums up the seemingly endless warring and reconstruction that followed the Han dynasty. Between the early 3rd and late 6th centuries AD north China saw a succession of rival kingdoms struggling for power. During this time of disunity a strong division formed between north and south China. The north was controlled by non-Chinese rulers and torn by warfare. Many people from the north consequently fled, carrying Chinese culture into previously non-Chinese territories. Meanwhile, the south experienced significant economic growth as Jiankang, later to become Nanjing, served as capital for a succession of dynasties.

Culture Vultures

The most successful northern regime during this period was the North- ern Wei dynasty (386-534), founded by the Tuoba, a people from the north. The Tuoba embraced Buddhism wholeheartedly and left behind some of China's top Buddhist art. Visit the cave temples near Dunhuang(p823) and outside Datong (p403) for a glimpse. The Wei reallocation of lands to peasants and the division of the capital city into wards also outlasted the dynasty.

SIGNS OF THE TIMES

Dong Zhongshu (179-104 BC) was a brainy fellow with a penchant for reading omens. During the Han dynasty he took up the position of Chief Minister with the task of interpreting the will of the heavens.

At this time Liu Bang was a commoner with little claim to the throne. As founder of the Han dynasty, he seems to have had a slightly guilty conscience about being emperor and needed lots of good omens to boost his moral. Luckily, Dong came up with a cosmology that fitted Liu's needs, interpreting not only the present but the past and future, too. In Dong's 'Five Phase Cycle', earth was overcome by metal, metal by water, water by wood, wood by fire and fire by earth. Each phase was attached to a historical period, conveniently ending with the Han (earth) overcoming the Qin (fire). Therefore, the Han's legitimacy to rule was quite simply a law of nature, as natural and predictable as night and day, summer and winter.

Whether the gods really did love the Han or Dong just had a knack for reading things in a positive light is up to you to interpret.