Many of the most important Chinese classics are available in translation, but much of the Chinese literary heritage (particularly its poetry) is untranslatable, although scholars persevere.

PREMOOERN LITERATURE

Prior to the 20th century there were two literary traditions in China: the classical and the vernacular. The classical canon, largely Confucian in nature, consisted of a core of texts written in ancient Chinese that had to be mastered thoroughly by all aspirants to the Chinese civil service, and was the backbone of the Chinese education system - it was nearly indecipherable to the masses.

The vernacular tradition arose  in the Ming dynasty and consisted largely of prose epics written for entertainment. For Western readers it is the vernacular texts, precursors of the contemporary Chinese novel, that are probably of more interest. Most of them are available in translation and provide a fascinating insight into life in China centuries past.

Classical

Book of Songs (Shijing) is the earliest collection of Chinese poetry includ- ing over 300 works that date back to the Zhou dynasty. Originally meant to be sung, the poems were compiled during the Han dynasty. This book belongs to the five Confucian classics  (Wujing) which  includes the / Ching (Yijing), Book of History (Shujing), Analects (Lunyu), Book of Rites (Lijing) and the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chun Qiu).

I Ching, or Book of Changes, is a divinatory system involving 64 hexa- grams that dates back to antiquity. The hexagrams are symbols composed of broken and continuous lines, representing the transitory nature of heaven and earth. If interpreted correctly, the hexagrams can advise on moral conduct and foretell the future.

Analects is a collection of sayings attributed to Confucius that were remembered by his followers and compiled over a period of years. The Analects contain all the essential tenets of Confucianism, including filial piety, respect to ancestors and adherence to ritual. Many still consider Arthur Waley's 1938 translation to be the best.

Vernacular

Water Margin/Outlaws of the Marsh (Shuihu  Zhuan)  by Shi Nai'an and Luo Guanzhong is a rollicking tale of a group of outlaws (with good hearts) who fight against corruption and evil during the Northern Song dynasty. This book is considered one of the great historical epics of China, along with Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms (San Guo) by Luo Guanzhong is a swashbuckling historical novel about the legendary battles that took place during the latter half of the Han dynasty, when the country was divided into three kingdoms. The novel remains as popular today in China as it was when it first appeared in the Ming dynasty. The best translation is by Moss Roberts (University of California Press, 1999), whose English version of the novel is highly readable and entertaining.

Dream   of the Red  Chamber (Honglou Meng)  by Cao  Xueqin,  also translated as The Dream of Red Mansions and The Story of the Stone, is a novel of manners about the decline of a genteel family in 18th-century China. The preferred translation is by David Hawkes (Penguin, 1973), who provides a captivating rendition of the original.

Journey to the West (Xiyou Ji) by Wu Cheng'en is a delightful novel about the Buddhist monk Xuanzhang's pilgrimage to India, accompanied by the rebellious 'Monkey King' Sun Wukong. The monkey's rebellious nature causes a wild assortment of misadventures. Two of the best trans- lations of Journey to the West are by Arthur Waley (John Day, 1943) and Anthony Yu (University of Chicago Press, 1990).

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MODERN & CONTEMPORARY LITERATURE

By the early 20th century, Western novels had begun to appear in Chinese translations in increasing numbers. Chinese intellectuals began to look at their own literary traditions more critically, in particular the classical one, which was markedly different in form from the Chinese that was spoken by modern Chinese.

After China came under the control of the communists, most writ- ing in 20th-century China tended to echo the CCP line, with formulaic language and predictable plotlines. Writing was rigid and unimaginative, with little allowance for creative embellishment.

Things changed after Mao's death in 1976, when Chinese artists and writers were finally able to throw off political constraints and write more freely. Writers for the first time dared to explore the traumatic events of the 20th century that had reshaped  the Chinese landscape. China's economic progress and the excessive materialism of the  1990s have spawned a new generation of authors, many of whom remember little about the Cultural Revolution and instead are most affected by the day-to-day realities of growing up in the city. Growing up without war or poverty, young writers are instead writing about the loneliness and decadence of urban life.

The True Story of Ah Q by Lu Xun (Chinese University Press, 2002), and translated by Gladys Yang and Yang Xianyi, was first published in 1921 by an author who is regarded by many as the father of modern Chinese literature. Lu Xun was the first of the major Chinese writers to write in colloquial Chinese. Ah Q is a moving tale of a simple-minded man caught up in the turmoil of the 1911 revolution.

Blades of Grass: The Stories of Lao She (University of Hawaii Press,1999), translated by William Lyell, is a collection of 14 stories by Lao She,one of China's most famous 20th-century writers. The stories contain poignant descriptions of people living through times of political upheaval and uncertainty. Lao She faced severe persecution during the Cultural Revolution and committed suicide.

Family by Ba Jin (Anchor Books, 1972) is the first in a trilogy that also includes Autumn and Spring. Influenced by the May 4th Movement, the novel offers a scathing view of Chinese feudalism.

Wild Swans by Jung Chang (Touchstone Books, 2003) is a gripping saga about three generations of Chinese women struggling to survive the tumultuous events of 20th-century China. This book has been banned in China for its frank depictions of modern Chinese life.

Half of Man Is Woman by Zhang Xianliang (WW Norton & Co, 1998), and translated into English by Martha Avery, is a candid exploration of sexuality and marriage in contemporary China and considered one of the most controversial novels to appear in the 1980s.

Love Must Not Be Forgotten (Panda Books, 1986) by Zhang Jie and translated by Gladys Yang is a novel by one of China's most famous female authors. This novel challenged the traditional

structure of mar- riage with its intimate portrayal of a middle-aged woman and her love of a married man.

Please Don't Call Me Human by Wang Shuo (Hyperion East, 2000) and translated by Howard Goldblatt is a mocking look at the failures of Chi- na's state security system. Wang Shuo has been dubbed China's hooligan author' for his criticism of government policies. Wang's works appeal to a broad spectrum of Chinese society, despite being banned.

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